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When we think of Ancient Egypt, an array of images spring to mind: pyramids, mummies, hieroglyphics, sacred animals, the Nile and much more. But at the centre of this iconic civilisation were its people; in particular its monarchs. Ancient Egypt spanned more than 2,000 years and was ruled by approximately 170 pharaohs. Believed to be the mediator between the gods and the world of men, the pharaoh would pass on his sacred powers to the new pharaoh after death, and would become divine. But what was everyday life like for these all-powerful rulers? What responsibilities did they have, and how did religion and politics both unite and divide a nation? From the dynasties of the Old Kingdom to the rise and fall of individual leaders, delve into the extraordinary world…

Archaeologists and historians have found only a few sources that refer to the reign of Qa’a, but they conclude that his time as pharaoh was long – around 33 years – and peaceful, with only routine ritual events taking place. Seal impressions found in Saqqara, Abusir and Abydos point to him ruling over a large kingdom, while an inscription found near Elkab may suggest that mining was taking place in the Eastern Desert. Artefacts deriving from Syria and Palestine suggest that there was contact, via merchants or through the military, with tribes across the Sinai. Such indications of prosperity certainly give no clues as to why the First Dynasty collapsed after the death of Qa’a. Nevertheless, his passing seems to have sparked a short civil war between two ephemeral rulers:…

Weapons in Ancient Egypt prior to the New Kingdom were restricted by the knowledge and technology of the time, and they proved to be unreliable in battle. However, when the Hyksos began invading Ancient Egypt, they also brought their improved weaponry with them, which was later utilised effectively by the Medjay. Examples of this were discovered at one of the excavation sites at Avaris (the capital of Egypt under the Hyksos), where there was an assault on Ahmose I. The bows and arrows were an instrument of war that reaped the benefits of the Hyksos invasion. The Egyptians then went from using a single-arch bow to composite ones, which were made from wood and reinforced with sinew and horn. This made for a pliant bow that could provide a longer…

The Great Pyramid, a symbol of Ancient Egyptian engineering and ingenuity, remains one of the world’s most domineering structures. Standing 146.5 metres (480 feet) tall, it towers above the other two pyramids of Giza, the Great Sphinx and the remains of the Necropolis, a stark reminder of how powerful the empire of the Ancient Egyptians was. And yet, we know very little about the man who had such an awe-inspiring symbol of power erected. The life of King Khufu has remained a subject of great fascination for historians and archaeologists for decades – most notably for the fact that the Old Kingdom monarch’s remains are nowhere to be found. So what happened to the great monarch of Ancient Egyptians? And how can the mysteries of the Great Pyramid be unlocked?…

The Ancient Egyptians faced many foes during their long history, including the Hyksos, the Hittites and the ‘Sea Peoples’, all of which stimulated advancements in military technology. In the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptian army was comprised of locally raised militia, with a hard kernel of mercenary troops. Exclusively infantry, the soldiers wore no armour and their primary weapon was the spear. Central control broke down at the end of the period, but was re-established during the Middle Kingdom. The army began to use Nubian archers, and later raised them within Egypt itself. Hemmed in by natural barriers – the desert, the Mediterranean and the Red Sea – the Egyptians were mostly concerned with staving off threats from the desert tribes and the Nubians to the south. A…

Like many of the kings and queens who were preserved in grand tombs of the era, Ahmose I’s mummy provides a fascinating insight into the physiological features of Egypt’s most powerful leaders. Originally thought to be the body of a 50-year-old man, later studies suggest he died in his 30s. However, some clues – such as a lack of similar physical characteristics and the fact his arms weren’t crossed on his chest, as per the tradition – suggest the remains may not even be those of Ahmose I. The state of his remains also reveals an intriguing post-mortem history. His tomb was discovered in 1881 within the Deir el-Bahri (a complex network of mortuary temples located in the Theban Necropolis) alongside fellow 18th Dynasty monarchs such as Amenhotep I and…

Some of the most powerful individuals of the ancient world, the pharaohs of Egypt were believed to have inherited the throne by divine right and were worshipped as gods on earth. Huge temples were built in their honour, statues were carved in their image and pyramids were built in their memory to ensure their everlasting legacy. However, in what may be one of history’s biggest cover-up operations, one of its greatest rulers has been all but lost to the desert. And the reason behind this monarch’s reign being erased from history might seem pretty trivial to us now: this pharaoh was a woman. In the 16th century BCE, Egypt was experiencing a time of great stability. Founded by Ahmose I in 1543 BCE, the 18th Dynasty marked the start of…

When Pharaoh Thutmose II died in 1479 BCE, he left behind a serious power vacuum. While his sister-wife Hatshepsut had produced a daughter, his only son – Thutmose III, borne of a concubine – was too young to rule. A junior acolyte in the influential Temple of Amun-Re in Karnak, the young Thutmose had been named pharaoh by his fellow priests. In reality, power and influence lay with his stepmother Hatshepsut, who ruled in his place for seven years as regent before amassing enough clout to be named a fellow pharaoh. Hatshepsut inherited a realm of three million people, one that had blossomed under 60 years of stability and prosperity. It had even enjoyed brief military glory under her father, Thutmose I, who pillaged as far as the Euphrates, ‘the…

When Amenhotep III, the ninth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, came to power he inherited a realm in its prime. The military successes instigated by his ancestor (and progenitor of the dynasty) Ahmose I, 150 years before, had kick-started the nation into an age of transformation. Nurtured by the rulers that followed, Egypt had cast aside the reclusive and insular policies of old and expanded the kingdom by trade and sheer economic might. The country had entered a new golden age and the politically savvy Amenhotep III would preserve that prosperity not with blades and blood, but with marriage and diplomacy. The New Kingdom, one of the distinct eras when Ancient Egypt enjoyed a peak as a civilisation, was a stark contrast to the Second Intermediate Period that had preceded…

The year was 1274 BCE and a god was on the march. Standing six-feet tall with a square jutting jaw, thick lips and a long sharp nose, Ramesses II rode his golden chariot ahead of an army of 20,000 archers, charioteers and sandalled infantrymen. Only five years into his reign as pharaoh, he had already established himself as a fierce warrior and strategic military commander, the rightful blood heir to the newly established 19th Dynasty and a true spiritual son of the goddess Isis herself. Ramesses’ soldiers would have seen their commander-in-chief as the rest of Egypt did: as a god in the flesh possessed of legendary strength and bravery, incapable of error and on a divine mission to re-establish Egypt as the dominant superpower of the Middle East. Ramesses’…

The Egyptians and Hittites adopted the horse-driven chariot from the Asiatic steppe cultures. Horses weren’t mounted in battle but strapped to rolling platforms holding a driver and one or more warriors. Speedy chariots could dash in and out of battle, attacking with a combination of arrows and close-range javelins and spears. The Hittites were famed charioteers, charging en masse with thousands of chariots carrying chain-mailed warriors. Egyptian chariots were lighter, the frames made of wood wrapped in stretched canvas, and the floor made from leather netting.…

Only one of Alexander the Great’s dreams has survived, and it tells how in 331 BCE a venerable old figure – possibly Homer himself – is said to have visited the sleeping conqueror and, with a recital of lines from The Odyssey, advised him on the site for his great Egyptian city, Alexandria. It is fitting that this sole recorded dream-memory should reference the epic poet, for Alexander strived to embody the Homeric ideal above all. Like Hector or Achilles, he would stand astride history as one of its most celebrated warriors, his deeds in life still echoing down to modern times. According to one of Alexander’s greatest modern biographers, Robin Lane Fox, the Macedonian king feasted upon the words of Homer, “not as a distant reader but more in…

When Alexander launched his famous conquest of Asia, it was the Persian king Darius III who would feel the brunt of the Macedonian military might. Darius himself had enjoyed a notable career as a soldier and was reputed to have distinguished himself during battle against a rebellious tribe in central Iran. His empire also included Egypt, which came into the Persian fold in 343 BCE, courtesy of Artaxerxes III’s significant defeat of Pharaoh Nectanebo II. Alexander’s first victories in Asia came against Darius’ satraps, though the great king took to the field in 333 BCE, fighting Alexander at the Battle of Issus. Despite outnumbering the enemy, Darius’s army was routed and he left his shield and robe on the field. Ancient historians claimed that roughly 110,000 Persians perished compared to…

Egypt was in turmoil. In the year 81 BCE Ptolemy IX, the pharaoh who had dared to melt down the gold coffin of Alexander the Great, was dead. A series of bloody and violent family feuds had robbed his dynasty of any legitimate male heirs, so his popular and beloved daughter, Berenice III became queen. Following the family tradition, she married her half-brother, Ptolemy XI, but just 19 days after the ceremony, the groom had his new bride murdered and claimed the throne as his own. The citizens of Alexandria were furious, and an angry mob quickly seized the new pharaoh and lynched him. This left Egypt leaderless and seemingly out of control. As the commander of the army and the personification of god on Earth, a pharaoh’s presence was…

Not far from Karnak stands the Luxor Temple; the location of these two great monuments and other sites of interest within Luxor (once known as Thebes) gave rise to the city’s nickname, ‘the world’s greatest open-air museum’. Luxor Temple was dedicated to the Theban Triad, and it’s thought it may have been the site of the crowning of new kings. The temple is made from Nubian sandstone quarried from a site around 150 kilometres (93 miles) along the Nile from Luxor. Sun courts, pylons, obelisks, statues and chapels were constructed first by Amenhotep III and later by Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The temple was the finishing point of Thebes’ annual Opet Festival, a celebration involving the procession of statues of the Theban Triad from Karnak through the sphinxlined avenue connecting…

The curse of Amen-Ra is just one of many associated with Ancient Egypt. The so-called curse of the pharaohs has become legendary, and history is littered with accounts of people who experienced misfortune after desecrating tombs. The most famous is probably Lord Carnarvon, who died after opening the tomb of Tutankhamen. In fact, Lord Carnarvon was one of more than ten people with an interest in the tomb who died within a decade of it being opened. There were suicides, murders, illness and injuries, and with each of them the legend of the curse flourished. However, somewhat less famous are the many dozens more who were present at the opening of Tutankhamun’s tomb who went on to live long lives. There wasn’t even a curse inscribed on the tomb at…

He was murdered by his successor The presence of a piece of bone in his skull cavity led experts to believe that Tutankhamun died from a brain haemorrhage caused by a blow to the head. Recent examination has discredited this theory. Malaria A DNA analysis showed malaria to be present in Tutankhamun’s system, leading some to believe his weakened body was unable to fight it off. Although this can be a deadly disease, adults often develop immunity to it, so this theory is in some doubt. A chariot crash Tutankhamun’s body had several injuries down one side. Car-crash experts concluded that the injuries would correspond to death by a chariot crash, which shattered his ribs and pelvis. However, it was later concluded that these injuries occurred after death. Genetic diseases…

Ancient Egypt remains one of the most storied, romantic and revered eras in all of world history. As the juggernauts of North Africa for three millennia, the Egyptians had time to cultivate a fascinating culture, construct huge monuments to their rulers and gods, and leave behind a rich collection of relics that enable us to continue to engage with their story today. But every story must have a beginning, and at the budding stage of Egypt’s was King Narmer, the first king of unified Egypt. Unlike the swathes of published histories, oratories, biographies and personal accounts left to us by more recent civilisations like the Roman Empire, our sources stretching as far back in time to King Narmer – who reigned approximately five thousand years ago – are understandably scarce.…

Far more than just a ruler, in Ancient Egypt the pharaoh was seen as the gods’ representative on Earth. Part king, part high priest, part battle commander and part lawmaker, for more than 3,000 years this figurehead was central to everyday life. As such, their daily life encompassed a wide variety of responsibilities and rituals in line with his or her lofty status, all of which were considered essential to both the running of the empire and its spiritual development. Here, we look at what might have been in store on a particular day as the pharaoh went about their divine business. GETTING READY FOR THE DAY Upon waking, the pharaoh was washed and dressed by their servants, in addition to being adorned with various pieces of jewellery. Subordinates each…

The period of the New Kingdom of Egypt, between the 16th and 11th centuries BCE, saw the introduction of a paramilitary force that would guard the pharaohs and their land against foreign invasion as well as protect the peace. This elite force was called the Medjay. These formidable royal bodyguards originated from an ethnic group in eastern Sudan, and were related to the Nubians. Renowned for their fine fighting skills and military prowess, they were hired by the Egyptians as mercenaries, and after successfully proving themselves, the group evolved into what can only be defined as the national police force. The Medjay kept the peace for an extraordinary amount of time, lasting right through the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, 2050 to 1710 BCE, and the 18th dynasty, 1550 to 1292…

The Great Pyramids at Giza are testament not only to the ingenuity and engineering prowess of an ancient culture, but an almost everlasting statement from a handful of incredibly powerful men. The pharaohs were already the most powerful and spiritually pure beings in the kingdom, but these few weren’t satisfied with earthly glory – they wanted structures that would ensure their survival for time immemorial. From Khufu to Menkaure, these men would express their power like no other – and their mark on the world would live on for thousands of years. Khufu For a man believed to have commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza in his honour, the details surrounding the life and times of Khufu are somewhat incomplete. However, we do know that this pharaoh of the Fourth…

Pharaoh Mentuhotep II not only reunified Egypt, creating the stability that led to the flourishing of the Middle Kingdom, often seen as a golden age in antiquity, he also features in the oldest surviving ghost story in the world. But first, the life and reign of Mentuhotep. By around 2181 BCE the highly centralised Old Kingdom had collapsed into regional and local districts. Egyptologists generally divide Egyptian history into periods of organised central control, known as ‘Kingdoms’, and periods of political uncertainty and more local power, known as ‘Periods’. The Old Kingdom gave way to the First Intermediate Period from around 2180 BCE to 2040 BCE. Memphis, the capital of the Old Kingdom, was no longer able to exert political control over the regional governors, called nomarchs, who each governed…

Though Thutmose was a great conqueror, destroying all kingdoms in his path, he was also a prodigious builder, particularly in the last decade of his reign, commissioning great works in more than 50 locations – stretching from Byblos on the coast of Lebanon to Gebel Barkal in Sudan. He donated vast riches to the Amun-Ra Temple at Karnak, constructing the Sixth and Seventh Pylons, building an enormous sacred lake and filling the gardens with exotic plants and animals from Asia. To the east, he built a new colonnaded Festival Hall sprawling 3,060m2 (32,938ft2) with a botanical garden chamber, depicting plants from his new conquests. One of Thebe’s most spectacular monuments, it would later host the annual Opet Festival. During his reign, he expanded the overall Karnak temple complex from 9,555m2…

On 6 December 1912, an Egyptian workman digging along the banks of the River Nile unearthed one of the most precious treasures in the history of Egyptology. The man was one of many working on the excavation of an ancient sculptor’s workshop, a dig overseen by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt. As he felt the knowing jolt of his pick against hard stone, he brushed away the earth to reveal the distinctive colours of ancient paintwork, and immediately called for his superior. Borchardt recalls: “The tools were put aside and the hands were now used,” revealing the slender neck of a limestone bust buried upside down in the dirt. Digging deeper, they revealed a pair of full, red lips; a dramatic, sloping nose; almond eyes; and dark, arching eyebrows. Finally, they…

Since the discovery of Nefertiti’s bust, archaeologists have scoured the Egyptian desert in search of her resting place. Although no formal identification has been made, one Egyptologist believes she has found Nefertiti’s mummy in the tomb of Amenhotep II, the great grandfather of Akhenaten. The mummy, known as ‘The Younger Lady’, was discovered buried alongside Queen Tiye, Akhenaten’s mother, and a young boy, possibly his brother, back in 1898. The discoverer, Victor Loret, originally believed the mummy to be male, but a closer inspection by anatomist Dr Grafton Elliot Smith Tests concluded that it was a woman. The room containing the mummies was then sealed, and had been all but forgotten until 1993, when Egyptologist Joann Fletcher stumbled across one unlikely piece of evidence. Joann, who at the time was…

A pharaoh is expected to provide suitable heirs to the throne, and Ramesses the Great approached this royal task with particular gusto. During the first ten years of his father Seti I’s reign as pharaoh, a teenage Ramesses sired ten sons and at least as many daughters. Over the course of his long lifetime, Ramesses had six to eight principal wives, dozens of lesser wives and untold numbers of concubines. He is believed to have fathered an estimated 80 sons and 60 daughters, an impressive and somewhat excessive number, even by pharaoh standards. Ramesses had good reason for spreading his seed. Although he was born into a common family, Ramesses was intent on reinstating a pure dynastic bloodline. He gave his male heirs high-ranking administrative posts and trained each of…

The Egyptians and Hittites adopted the horse-driven chariot from the Asiatic steppe cultures. Horses weren’t mounted in battle but strapped to rolling platforms holding a driver and one or more warriors. Speedy chariots could dash in and out of battle, attacking with a combination of arrows and close-range javelins and spears. The Hittites were famed charioteers, charging en masse with thousands of chariots carrying chain-mailed warriors. Egyptian chariots were lighter, the frames made of wood wrapped in stretched canvas, and the floor made from leather netting.…

Cosmopolitan, free and prosperous, the ancient city of Alexandria combined the culture and society of two great civilisations: the Ancient Greeks and Egyptians. The city bears the namesake of its founder, Alexander the Great, who conquered the Nile Delta in 332 BCE and founded Alexandria at the location of a small Egyptian town called Rhacotis. As the city became part of the extended Greek Empire, Alexander personally approved its development and transformation into a great metropolis of culture and learning. Its streets were designed to reflect this reforming zeal, with its wide boulevards and Corinthian order columns surrounding a series of temples and vast meeting places. Egyptian and Jewish influences remained, creating a unique and diverse port that quickly became the centre of the ancient world through its trading power…

Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Macedonian, 62-47 BCE How did they get together? The marriage between Ptolemy and his sister was arranged, as was the tradition with Egyptian royalty. Was it true love? Considering their joint rule erupted into a brutal civil war, we can assume there was little love lost between the siblings. There is no evidence they consummated their marriage. How did it end? Ptolemy was forced to flee Alexandria when the forces of Caesar and his sister-wife Cleopatra claimed victory. He reportedly drowned attempting to cross the Nile when fleeing. Julius Caesar Roman, 100-44 BCE How did they get together? Cleopatra and her brother both needed Caesar’s support. Cleopatra met with Caesar before their scheduled meeting and managed to sway his vote. Her methods can be left to…

Cleopatra’s surviving children were adopted by Octavia, sister of Augustus. They became Roman citizens and faded quickly into obscurity. Egypt, now a Roman province, was ruled by a prefect. Greek remained the official language. While Alexandria continued to flourish, it became a site of many religious and military uprisings. In 269 CE, Alexandria was claimed by yet another woman, when Zenobia, the ferocious warrior queen of Palmyra, conquered Egypt. Zenobia, who was an admirer of Cleopatra, was quick to behead her detested Roman foes. She ruled Egypt until 274, before she herself was taken hostage by the Roman Emperor Aurelian. In an ironic twist of fate, Zenobia appeared in golden chains during Aurelian’s Triumph in Rome. The legacy of Greco-Roman Egypt still survives. It can be seen in a series…

Long before their deaths, wealthy Egyptians built luxurious tombs for themselves and filled them with objects that would protect and assist them in the afterlife. This ranged from simple items like bowls, combs and clothing to chariots, furniture, weapons and jewellery. The treasures found in Ancient Egyptian tombs are among some of the most valuable in the world, and show that status symbols were considered just as important for the afterlife as they had been on Earth. Food was also stored in the tomb and left as offerings after the tomb had been sealed in order to sustain the life force (ka) – one of the five elements that made up the human soul. Even depictions of food painted onto the walls of the tomb were believed to provide nourishment…

Standing 18 metres (59 feet) tall, the Colossi of Memnon are an impressive sight in the Theban Necropolis. They were built in 1350 BCE, in the likeness of 18th Dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep III, and the giant twin statues sit gazing east towards the Nile. Carved into the front of the throne are two smaller figures – the pharaoh’s mother and his wife. Blocks of quartzite sandstone for the statues were transported almost 700 kilometres (435 miles) over land from the quarry site as they were probably too heavy to be moved on the Nile. The Colossi were erected to guard the pharaoh’s mortuary temple, where Egyptians could worship Amenhotep as a god both during his reign and after his death. At the time of its construction, the temple complex was…

Aubrey Herbert Carnarvon’s half-brother Date of death: 26 September 1923 Cause: Blood poisoning George Jay Gould I Visitor to the tomb Date of death: 16 May 1923 Cause: Fever Sir Achibald Douglas-Reid X-rayed Tutankhamun’s mummy Date of death: 15 January 1924 Cause: Unknown illness Prince Ali Kamel Fahmy Bey Prince of Egypt Date of death: 10 July 1923 Cause: Shot by his wife Arthur Cruttenden Mace Part of excavation team Date of death: 1928 Cause: Arsenic poisoning Richard Bethell Carter’s secretary Date of death: 15 November 1929 Cause: Smothered in bed…

Legend holds that king Menes, or Narmer by another name, established the city of Memphis following the unification of Egypt. Sitting near the base of the Nile Delta in former Lower Egypt, Memphis would swiftly establish itself as a key commercial centre and would act as the formal seat of the pharaohs for roughly a thousand years. From their nexus of power in Memphis, the pharaohs would oversee and orchestrate the construction of great pyramids and temples, some of which still stand today. During its infancy, the city was dubbed ‘white walls’ due to the whitewashed mud brick used to construct the king’s palace. It was also associated with another name, Hut-Ka-Ptah, in honour of the patron deity of the city, Ptah. This would be of immense importance in the…

Nothing is known of the origins and early life of the man who would become Pharaoh Hotepsekhemwy, but his choice of royal name – meaning ‘the two mistresses are reconciled’ – means he likely acceded to the throne after a period of strife following the death of Qa’a, his name symbolising that he had reunited two factions or the two halves of Egypt. Among his achievements was the restoration of the tomb of Qa’a, who was possibly his father-in-law, a clever piece of propaganda in which the first ruler of the Second Dynasty boosted his legitimacy by linking himself to the pharaohs of the past. Nevertheless, Hotepsekhemwy did not fear breaking tradition when it suited him. Some claim his tomb was located at the necropolis at Saqqara, making him the…

The further back in time you go, the harder it inevitably becomes to produce reliable accounts of an individual’s life. Even for a civilisation like the Ancient Egyptians, who were prolific in their construction of storytelling monuments that stood the test of time, many of their early pharaohs and figures of historical significance remain enigmatic with regards to much of their life, enabling myth and legend to take root. This can notably be applied to the life of Djoser. Whether it’s the length of his reign (accounts vary from 19 years to as long as 28), his actual name (he is referred to at various times as Netjerikhet, meaning ‘divine of body’, Tosorthros and Sesorthos), or even his place in Egyptian chronology (he’s thought to be the first ruler of…

A hierarchic system has provided the backbone of police forces and military institutions since time immemorial, and there is plenty of evidence to suggest that the Medjay were no different. Just like any modern police force, there was a chain of command within the Medjay. The lowest rung of this ladder featured the soldiers tasked with protecting civilians and properties usually located around the borders. Above them were the captains for each region, and at the summit sat the chief, with his deputies superior to the captains but answerable to him. Evidence for such a hierarchy can be found in the reign of the pharaoh Thutmose IV, where there is mention of the ‘Captain of the Medjay of the West of the City’, a position that would have entailed the…

Much like the police of today use dogs as their crime-fighting companions, dogs were also used in Ancient Egypt for the same purpose. The Medjay would train them in order to help with the apprehension of criminals when guarding public places, with preferred breeds including the Basenji and Ibizan, the latter of which was depicted on the tomb of no less a person than Tutankhamen. Other animals that were trained to aid the Medjay were baboons and monkeys. These primates had a mysterious affinity with Ancient Egypt, as one of their gods, Babi (or Babu), was a symbol for life after death. Because of their similar appearance to this divine being, baboons were thought to be the reincarnation of humans after their passing, and for the same reasons they were…

While Mentuhotep wanted to connect his rule to the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, in one way he made a complete break with the past: his tomb. The huge mortuary complex he had built at Deir el-Bahri on the west bank of the Nile near Thebes is very different from the great pyramids of the first pharaohs. Surrounding the central structure were terraces and columned walkways, looking like verandahs on a pharaonic scale. In front of the temple there were groves and rows of tamarisk and sycamore trees, each planted into holes cut 10m (33ft) into the rock that were then backfilled with soil and kept watered by the temple staff. There was a long causeway running to the upper terrace and the main building probably consisted of a square…

Think of Ancient Egypt and you might very well imagine a vast empire ruled by god-fearing monarchs; men and women who erected grand tombs and monuments in their honour. But that stereotypical snapshot of the Nile kings is only half the story – for every peaceful period of absolute rule, there was a time when Egypt was divided or controlled almost entirely by foreign powers. Ahmose I, who was the founding king of the 18th Dynasty, was born into such a time. The kingdom he was destined to inherit was bisected by invaders who had dominated Lower Egypt for over a century. And it would be his defence of this long-standing status quo that would define his position as one of Ancient Egypt’s most celebrated leaders. To appreciate the gravity…

Red Chapel Hatshepsut made several contributions to the Temple of Karnak, but this was one of her largest. It was built to be a barque shrine, where a model ship was kept. The Ancient Egyptians believed these were used by the sun god to travel through the night, and also to transport the dead to the afterlife. The shrine was made of red quartzite with a black diorite foundation. Twin obelisks These were erected at the entrance of Karnak, and at the time they were built were the tallest structures in the world. One still stands at 97 feet tall and weighs approximately 320 tons. An inscription at its base says that it took seven months to cut the monolith out of the quarry. Temple of Pakhet This was an…

Sobekneferu Sobekneferu was the first ruling queen. When her brother died without leaving a male heir, Sobekneferu ascended the throne. Very little else is known about her, but some believe that she is the Egyptian princess who rescued Moses from the reeds. Nitocris The Greek historian Herodotus listed Nitocris as the last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty. She is believed to have killed her brother’s murderers by inviting them to a banquet in an underground chamber and flooding the room with water from the Nile. Hatshepsut Hatshepsut is considered one of Egypt’s most successful pharaohs. She established several important trade routes, which led to a huge growth in the nation’s wealth and also commissioned hundreds of building projects. Twosret This woman came to the throne after her young stepson, with…

“The pharaohs served multiple roles as religious leaders, military generals and political rulers” Abu Simbel 1264 or 1244 BCE These two temples along the banks of the Nile are outsized paeans to Ramesses and Nefertari. Both temples are carved into a sheer rock face. The smaller features two 12m (40ft) statues of Nefertari flanked by four even larger colossi of Ramesses. Standing guard outside the big temple are four goliath seated statues of Ramesses, each nearly 21m (70ft) tall. Deep inside the larger temple – which places Ramesses II on equal footing with the gods – a ray of sunlight pierces twice a year: once on Ramesses’ birthday. Per-Ramesses (or Piramesse) 1280 BCE Ramesses II built this sprawling complex along the northeastern Nile Delta as the royal seat of the Ramessid…

“Only Ptolemy I and II were natural or gifted leaders” The Ptolemaic dynasty is famed for embodying what to many people is the very spirit of Ancient Egypt. Their reign of 275 years, from 305 to 30 BCE, began with Ptolemy I Soter, yet he was not Egyptian at all, and nor were the monarchs who followed. When Alexander the Great died without naming his successor in 323 BCE, the enormous empire that he had built was plunged into chaos. It was decided that it should be carved up between those military leaders who had been the most faithful, and among them was Ptolemy I, a Macedonian nobleman and one of Alexander’s most trusted commanders. He had served as one of Alexander’s seven somatophylakes, or personal bodyguards, tasting food in…

Tomb raiding was commonplace in Ancient Egypt – very few tombs are found that have not been systematically looted. It is believed to have started in earnest, or at least to have become a problem on a large enough scale to trigger a response, in the Early Dynastic Period, starting around 3150 BCE. It was then that burial chambers started to be designed in order to frustrate would-be thieves. From simply filling the access tunnels with boulders, rocks and wooden beams to more sophisticated diversion attempts – though actual traps were not employed – efforts were made to protect the resting places of the royal and the rich. The efforts were futile, however, and the daubing of curses on walls and doorways was equally ineffective. Even the most elaborate of…

The longest reigning of all the pharaohs, Ramesses II used his 67 years on the throne to build more temples than any other Ancient Egyptian ruler. His greatest undertaking was his mortuary temple, the Ramesseum, a building in the Theban Necropolis that took 20 years to complete. The temple was given its modern name in 1829, when French scholar Jean-François Champollion first deciphered hieroglyphics on the walls referring to the pharaoh. As was tradition in a mortuary temple, two giant statues of Ramesses watched over the building, and scenes of his greatest victories, his children and his lifelong dedication to the gods were carved into the walls and pylons. Here worshippers could pay respect to Ramesses as a god on Earth. Smaller temples, including one dedicated to his mother and…

When RMS Titanic sank beneath the freezing waters of the Atlantic in the early hours of 15 April 1912, more than 1,500 people lost their lives. The doomed liner has become a legend, yet there are some who believe that her fate wasn’t caused by an iceberg, but the vengeful mummy of Princess Amen-Ra. But just who was Amen-Ra, and how did she become a part of Titanic lore? Supposedly, Princess Amen-Ra lived approximately 1,500 years before Christ and was laid to rest in Luxor, her mummified remains contained in a painted wooden casket. In the late-1880s, the casket and its contents were allegedly offered for sale to some English travellers, who drew lots to see who would make the purchase. The winner was Thomas Douglas Murray who, just hours…

Getting funding Howard Carter convinces Lord Carnarvon to finance a search for the tomb. He begins digging in the Valley of the Kings, but by 1922 Carnarvon permits just one more season of funding. 1917-1922 A step in the right direction While Howard Carter is temporarily away from the dig site, a step is found carved into the bedrock. 4 November 1922 A royal discovery Carter discovers the sealed door of the tomb and sees a passage behind. He then sends a telegram to Carnarvon to alert him. 5 November 1922 Wonderful things Through a tiny hole he glimpses what he describes as a “strange and wonderful medley of extraordinary and beautiful objects.” 26 November 1922 Exploration Carter, Carnarvon and Lady Evelyn notice a sealed doorway and secretly reopen an…